There is no shortage of lists of the “most innovative” firearms designers, which almost certainly include the likes of Christian Sharps, Benjamin Tyler Henry, Samuel Colt, Richard Gatling, Hiram Maxim, John Browning, John Thompson, Hugo Schmeisser, John Garand, Mikhail Kalashnikov, and Eugene Stoner. Their contributions have been extensively documented—and for good reason.
While they may not be household names like Leonardo da Vinci, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Graham Bell, Thomas Edison, or the Wright Brothers, their impact is just as profound.
Yet, history is filled with overlooked innovators — few today could name the inventors of the radio (Guglielmo Marconi), television (Philo Taylor Farnsworth), or mobile phone (Martin Cooper). The same applies to firearms development. Many individuals played crucial but underappreciated roles in advancing firearms technology.
The Origins of Gunpowder and Early Firearms
It is lost to time who actually invented gunpowder, but it is widely accepted that Chinese monks first created a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal around the 9th century CE. Ironically, their goal wasn’t to propel a projectile but was instead part of an eons-long quest for a life-extending elixir.
Such a concoction likely shortened the life of anyone who took it, but that mixture was also found to be incendiary.
While few likely saw an immediate use for it, this black powder was eventually employed in warfare, and then gradually spread throughout Asia and made its way to Europe by the late 13th century.
However, there has been speculation that the monks simply reinvented the mixture, as Chinese alchemist Wei Boyang may have documented the first chemical composition of gunpowder as early as 142 CE.
Nearly two centuries later Chinese philosopher and politician Ge Hong also wrote about a mixture of saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur — yet, it seems that for at least 500 years no one recognized how to employ it.
Even after the Chinese monks developed what we know as the earliest form of gunpowder, it wasn’t until the mid-10th century that the first “fire lance” is believed to have been produced — essentially an early form of bottle rocket. The chemical mixture was packed into a container and attached to a bamboo spear or lance, which was fired much like a modern missile or rocket.
Within another 200 years, fire lances evolved into metal versions, and it is likely that at some point there was a mishap. Instead of the entire lance being propelled, it could be speculated that just the canister that held the gunpowder was launched — likely inspiring someone to place the mixture within a tube.
By the 13th century, the Yuan dynasty’s armies employed hand cannons, marking the birth of firearms.
The Mongols, Marco Polo, and the Spread of Gunpowder
The Mongols, while not firearms designers, played a key role in spreading gunpowder weapons across Asia and into the Middle East. However, it was the Flemish missionary William of Rubruck (also known as Guillaume de Robrouck) who is credited with bringing gunpowder to Europe around 1254 — more than a decade before the more famous Marco Polo set out on his travels.
Polo may (or may not) have brought noodles to Italy, Rubruck brought the gunpowder!
Just over a decade later, in 1267, Sir Roger Bacon wrote about gunpowder’s military potential in his Opus Majus, refining its composition to the modern black powder formula:
- 10% sulfur
- 75% potassium nitrate
- 15% softwood charcoal
Less than half a century later, in 1327, Walter de Milemete’s Vaso offered the earliest known illustration of a European cannon. The first recorded use of a cannon in battle occurred in Europe during the Reconquest of Spain at the Siege of Algeciras (1342-1344), highlighting how quickly the Europeans adapted the newly discovered mixture and made use of it.
The Gunpowder Age and Early Firearms Innovation
While hand cannons were arguably the first personal firearms, they lacked accuracy and probably injured or even killed a high percentage of the operators. Their arrival in Europe ushered in what has become known as the “Gunpowder Age,” which saw rapid innovation in firearms.
Interestingly, the Chinese largely didn’t innovate at anywhere near the same rate — and it has been suggested that the near-constant wars of Religion in Europe during the Renaissance and early modern era resulted in the great leaps in firearms technology. The Europeans focused on both cannons and personal weapons, and it was the latter that saw the most rapid development.
The arquebus, appearing in the 15th century, is considered the first long gun with an early trigger mechanism. This innovation eventually led to the development of the matchlock, which allowed firearms to be fired without needing to manually ignite the powder charge.
Some scholars even believe Leonardo da Vinci contributed to firearms design with early sketches of the wheellock around 1500 CE. However, the great Italian inventor’s design remained on paper, while — it is believed — an unknown German mechanic may have conceived of a similar concept around the same time.
The wheellock was soon refined and used throughout Europe, but the firearm has the dubious distinction of being the first firearm to fall victim to “gun control laws.” It was banned in Austria and then throughout the Holy Roman Empire around 1518. Several Italian states also banned the weapon, fearing how pistol versions could be easily concealed. Yet, it was still employed by the militaries of the day and found use during the Thirty Year’s War (1618 – 1648).
Forgotten Innovators Behind the Lever action, Percussion Caps, and Metallic Cartridges
While Christian Sharps and Benjamin Tyler Henry are widely credited with developing the lever-action rifle in the middle of the 19th century, their work built upon innovations that began centuries earlier with French gunsmith Marin le Bourgeois, who is credited with inventing the flintlock mechanism.
So innovative was his design that it was adopted worldwide and remained in use for more than 200 years. Later, Eli Whitney — better known for the cotton gin — was among the dozens of innovators who improved on le Bougeois’ design when he produced the first muskets for the United States at the Springfield and Harpers Ferry armories.
It was also during the 19th century that firearms technology saw its most significant leaps forward in very short order.
The English-born American Joshua Shaw is remembered today in the art world for his paintings, but in the 1820s, he invented percussion caps, which replaced flintlock ignition with a small mercury fulminate primer that ignited when struck.
French inventor Clement Pottet — building on the word of Charles Howard and Shaw — worked from 1929 to 1855 to perfect the first metallic-cased ammunition, paving the way for repeating rifles. His work was further improved by Hiram Berdan (USA) and Colonel Edward Boxer (UK), each who independently developed improved primers, resulting in the centerfire ammunition. Such ordnance allowed for repeating rifles and even the machine gun to be developed — and while someone else probably would have gotten there, Pottet was the first.
While lever action proved to be the first reliable operating system for repeating rifles, Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse went in another direction, inventing the first bolt-action rifle in 1824. Adopted by the Prussian Army as the Nadelgewehr (Needle Rifle), it saw limited use during the German Revolutions of 1848.
Dreyse’s bolt action concept was later improved upon by such gun designers as Austrian Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher, Norwegians Ole Herman Johannes Krag and Erik Jørgensen, and notably Peter Paul and Wilhelm Mauser. Their respective designs also took advantage of an invention of French chemist Paul Marie Eugène Vieille, namely the modern nitrocellulose-based smokeless gunpowder.
The bolt action rifle remained the standard military long gun for more than half a century, with tens of millions produced during the two World Wars. Those conflicts also saw numerous firearms innovations, including ones from the likes of Browning, Thompson, and Schmeisser.
The Overlooked Father of the Submachine Gun
Among 20th-century firearm designers, Hugo Schmeisser is widely credited with pioneering the submachine gun, but another name often goes unnoticed — Theodor Bergmann.
Though primarily an industrialist, Bergmann played a role in developing early pistols and was part of the team that created the Maschinenpistole 18/I. More commonly known as the MP-18, it is often credited as the first submachine gun, and it paved the way for many of the military small arms to come.
And it was also the culmination of the chemical mixture perfected a millennium earlier!
Conclusion: A Legacy of Innovation
Firearms technology has evolved through centuries of incremental improvements, with many overlooked pioneers making significant contributions.
While legendary names like Browning, Garand, and Kalashnikov deserve their recognition, it is equally important to remember the forgotten innovators who laid the foundation for modern weapons. Their contributions, often overshadowed, were crucial in shaping firearms history as we know it today.
